The study of the Old Testament involves not only analyzing the Hebrew text but also understanding how it was transmitted, translated, and interpreted over time.
One important but often overlooked resource in this field is the Targums—Aramaic translations and paraphrases of the Hebrew Scriptures. These ancient texts are invaluable for textual criticism, helping scholars understand the history of the biblical text, its interpretation, and the linguistic environment of Second Temple Judaism.
In this post, we will explore what the Targums are, their origins and purpose, and why they are significant for Old Testament textual criticism.
What Are the Targums?
The word Targum (from the Aramaic תַּרְגּוּם, targūm) means “translation” or “interpretation.” The Targums are Aramaic renderings of the Hebrew Bible that arose when Aramaic became the dominant spoken language among Jews, replacing Hebrew in everyday use, particularly after the Babylonian exile (6th century BC).
There are multiple Targums, each associated with different books of the Hebrew Bible. Some of the most well-known include:
- Targum Onkelos – A fairly literal translation of the Torah (Pentateuch), widely used in Jewish tradition.
- Targum Jonathan – A translation of the Prophets (Nevi’im), with more interpretive expansions.
- Targum Psalms, Targum Isaiah, and others – Found among the Writings (Ketuvim), often containing paraphrastic and midrashic elements.
- Targum Pseudo-Jonathan – A more expansive and interpretive rendering of the Torah, incorporating additional traditions and legends.
Unlike Greek translations like the Septuagint (LXX), which aimed for formal equivalence (word-for-word translation), the Targums often included explanatory paraphrases, interpretations, and expansions to clarify the meaning for Aramaic-speaking Jewish audiences.
Why Are the Targums Important for Old Testament Textual Criticism?
As explored in other posts, textual criticism seeks to reconstruct the most accurate version of the biblical text by comparing ancient manuscripts and translations. The Targums provide valuable insights for this work in several ways:
1. Witness to the Hebrew Text Before the Masoretic Tradition.
The Masoretic Text (MT), the standard Hebrew Bible used today, was finalized by Jewish scribes known as the Masoretes around the 7th-10th centuries AD. The Targums, however, preserve evidence of earlier Hebrew readings from the Second Temple period (c. 516 BC – 70 AD). In cases where the Targums differ from the MT, they may reflect an earlier textual tradition that was later lost or altered.
The Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) sometimes support Targumic readings over the MT, suggesting that alternative Hebrew texts circulated in antiquity. For example, in Deuteronomy 32:8, the MT reads:
“When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided mankind, he fixed the borders of the peoples according to the number of the sons of Israel.”
However, Targum Jonathan and the Septuagint (LXX) both read “sons of God” instead of “sons of Israel,” aligning with the Dead Sea Scrolls’ version of the passage. This suggests the MT may have been altered at some point in its transmission.
2. Interpretation and Theological Development
The Targums are not just translations; they incorporate theological explanations and interpretive expansions. These additions reveal how Jewish communities understood certain passages, often clarifying difficult texts. For example, Genesis 3:15, the promise of a future victory over the serpent, is paraphrased in Targum Onkelos in a way that anticipates Messianic themes later found in Christian interpretation.
Similarly, in Isaiah 53, the suffering servant is often identified as Messiah in some Targumic traditions, providing insight into Jewish Messianic expectations before the time of Jesus.
3. Linguistic Insights for Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic
The Targums are written in Jewish Aramaic, a language closely related to Hebrew. Because Hebrew and Aramaic share many linguistic features, the Targums help scholars understand rare Hebrew words by comparing their Aramaic equivalents, analyze how Hebrew grammar and syntax evolved over time, and identify loanwords and idioms that may clarify ambiguous biblical passages.
For example, in Job 19:25, where Job declares, “I know that my Redeemer lives,” the Hebrew term for “Redeemer” (go’el) is interpreted in Targum Job with an Aramaic equivalent that implies a divine figure, influencing later theological discussions (!).
4. Connection to the New Testament and Early Christianity
The Targums were widely used in Second Temple Judaism, the period during which Jesus and the apostles lived. Some scholars believe that certain phrases in the New Testament reflect Targumic influence, showing how Jewish communities at the time interpreted the Old Testament.
For example:
- John 1:1 (“In the beginning was the Word”) parallels Targumic references to the “Memra” (Word) of God as a divine agent in creation.
- Matthew 5:5 (“Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth”) echoes the wording of Targum Psalm 37:11, demonstrating how Jesus’ teachings aligned with contemporary Jewish interpretations.
- Additionally, many of the Targumic expansions contain references to the Messiah, reflecting a Jewish expectation of a coming anointed one, which early Christians believed was fulfilled in Jesus.
Why Should We Care About the Targums?
The Targums are not simply translations—they are interpretive windows into the ancient Jewish understanding of the Old Testament. Their significance for textual criticism lies in their ability to:
- Provide evidence of Hebrew Bible variants before the Masoretic Text.
- Offer interpretive insights into difficult passages.
- Help reconstruct the linguistic and theological context of the biblical world.
- Reveal how Second Temple Jews and early Christians understood key biblical themes.
For scholars and students of the Old Testament, the Targums serve as a bridge between ancient Jewish tradition and Christian interpretation, offering valuable perspectives on how the biblical text was read, transmitted, and understood throughout history.
