The Old Testament is not a text written in a vacuum. Its stories, laws, and poetic expressions emerged from a world deeply rooted in the cultural, religious, and historical milieu of the ancient Near East (ANE). Understanding the parallels between the Old Testament and other ancient Near Eastern texts, such as the Enuma Elish, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Atrahasis, and the Sumerian King List, is essential for grasping the richness and depth of the biblical narrative. Far from undermining the Bible’s authority, these parallels highlight the unique theological message of the Old Testament and its transformative worldview.
The stories of the Old Testament often share structural and thematic elements with other ANE texts, reflecting the common cultural landscape of the time. For instance, the Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation myth, tells of a cosmic struggle between gods, culminating in the creation of the world from the defeated goddess Tiamat’s body. Similarly, the Epic of Gilgamesh includes a flood narrative in which Utnapishtim, warned by a god, builds a boat to save himself, his family, and animals from a catastrophic deluge. The Atrahasis epic also recounts a flood, emphasizing the capricious nature of the gods and humanity’s tenuous existence.
These texts, along with others like the Sumerian King List, which attributes impossibly long reigns to ancient rulers before a great flood, provide a window into how ancient cultures understood the cosmos, humanity, and the divine. Their shared themes—creation, divine-human interaction, judgment, and renewal—set the stage for understanding the distinctiveness of the biblical narrative.
The definitive (and famous) resources in Old Testament studies comprising Old Testament parallels is Ancient Near Eastern Texts: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures by James B. Prichard (who is also an Asbury College grad!). This resource (originally published in 1950) is a regular staple in Old Testament studies (hardly “forbidden knowledge” Billy Carson, sigh).
While an invaluable resources, it can be intimating to the lay-reader. For those new to the topic, I would recommend Victor Matthews’ Old Testament Parallels, which provides a wealth of examples that further illuminate how the Old Testament interacts with and transforms ANE motifs. Here are several notable parallels:
- The Code of Hammurabi and the Covenant Code (Exodus 21–23): Both legal texts address social and moral issues, such as property rights and personal injury, but the biblical laws emphasize justice rooted in the character of God and the dignity of all people, including vulnerable groups like widows and orphans.
- The Descent of Ishtar and Psalm 22: The Akkadian story of Ishtar’s descent to the underworld contains themes of suffering and abandonment, which find resonance in the lament of Psalm 22. However, the biblical psalm moves beyond despair to trust in God’s ultimate deliverance.
- The Tale of Sargon and Moses’ Birth Narrative (Exodus 2): The story of Sargon of Akkad’s miraculous preservation as a baby in a basket parallels Moses’ rescue from the Nile. Yet, the biblical narrative highlights God’s providence and Moses’ role in delivering Israel, a theme absent in the Sargon tale.
- The Baal Cycle and Yahweh’s Sovereignty: The Ugaritic Baal Cycle depicts Baal’s struggle to assert his dominance over the forces of chaos, represented by Yam (Sea). In the Old Testament, Yahweh’s sovereignty over the sea and chaos is unchallenged, as seen in passages like Psalm 29 and Job 38, underscoring His ultimate power and authority.
- The Gilgamesh Quest for Immortality and Ecclesiastes: Gilgamesh’s futile search for eternal life contrasts with the philosophical reflections in Ecclesiastes, which affirm that life’s meaning is found in fearing God and keeping His commandments (Ecclesiastes 12:13-14).
- Temple Inauguration Rituals and Solomon’s Temple Dedication (1 Kings 8): Rituals for temple dedication, seen in ANE texts, find a parallel in Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the Jerusalem Temple. The biblical account emphasizes God’s presence and covenant faithfulness rather than appeasing deities.
- The Treaty Structure in Deuteronomy and Hittite Treaties: The structure of Deuteronomy, with its preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, blessings, and curses, closely resembles Hittite suzerainty treaties. This format underscores the covenantal relationship between God and Israel as a suzerain-vassal relationship, yet highlights God’s grace and love for His people.
Recognizing these parallels is important for several reasons. For starters, it means contextualizing the Bible in its historical setting. The Old Testament’s authors were part of the ANE world and used the language, imagery, and literary forms familiar to their audience. By studying texts like the Enuma Elish and Gilgamesh, we gain insight into the cultural and theological backdrop of the biblical narrative. For example, while the Enuma Elish portrays creation as the result of violent conflict among deities, Genesis 1 presents creation as a peaceful, intentional act by a single, transcendent God. This contrast reveals the theological polemic of Genesis: a direct challenge to the polytheistic and chaotic worldview of its time.
Also, the similarities between the Bible and ANE texts often emphasize their profound differences. The biblical flood narrative in Genesis, for instance, portrays God as just and merciful, sparing Noah because of his righteousness and establishing a covenant with all creation. In contrast, the gods in the Epic of Gilgamesh and Atrahasis act out of petty annoyance, and their decisions are arbitrary. The Old Testament’s monotheism, moral framework, and emphasis on covenant relationships stand apart from the capricious and self-serving nature of the gods in other ANE stories.
By engaging with ANE texts, we see how the Bible addressed the concerns and questions of its original audience in a way that remains relevant today. The biblical authors used familiar motifs to convey timeless truths about God, humanity, and the world. This approach underscores the Bible’s ability to speak into cultural contexts while offering a vision of reality that transcends them.
Understanding ANE parallels helps us interpret difficult passages in the Old Testament. For instance, the laws of the Covenant Code (Exodus 21–23) bear similarities to the Code of Hammurabi, another ANE legal text. Recognizing these parallels allows us to see how biblical law redefines justice by emphasizing the dignity and worth of all individuals, reflecting the character of a just and compassionate God.
The parallels between the Old Testament and ancient Near Eastern texts enrich our understanding of Scripture and its historical context. Rather than undermining its message, these parallels highlight the Bible’s distinctive voice in a world of competing worldviews. The Old Testament is not just another ANE text; it is divine revelation that redefines the nature of God, humanity, and reality itself. By studying these connections, we gain a deeper appreciation for the uniqueness and transformative power of the biblical narrative.
